Category: Arbitration/Litigation

Recent Developments Affecting U.S. Maritime Arbitration

Thomas H. Belknap, Jr.

This article highlights some recent legal developments relevant to maritime arbitration although, as will be seen below, not all of the developments specifically involve maritime cases. This fact serves as a good reminder that maritime arbitration in the United States is but a subset of a broad and well-developed body of law relating generally to international and commercial arbitration.

Recent Supreme Court Jurisprudence

Although the United States Supreme Court has not recently decided a case specifically addressing maritime arbitration, it has been active in the past few years in deciding cases that are directly relevant to arbitrating maritime claims. For instance, in Coinbase, Inc. v. Bielski, 143 S. Ct. 1915 (2023), the Supreme Court held that a district court must stay its proceedings while an interlocutory appeal on the issue of arbitrability is pending. Notably, an interlocutory appeal on this issue is generally only available where the district court has denied a petition to compel arbitration, and not when such a motion has been granted.

ZF Automotive US, Inc., 142 S. Ct. 2078 (2022): The Court held that a party may not use 28 U.S.C. § 1782 to obtain discovery in aid of foreign arbitration because a foreign arbitral panel is not a “foreign tribunal” within the meaning of the statute. This resolved a circuit split in which some circuits had found that such discovery was available, and others found not. Notably, discovery in aid of foreign proceedings is still often available in support of foreign court proceedings and can be a powerful discovery tool.

Badgerow v. Walters, 142 S. Ct. 1310 (2022): The Supreme Court held that in applications to compel arbitration under § 4 of the Federal Arbitration Act (“FAA”), a federal court must “look through” the complaint to the subject matter of the action to decide whether it has subject matter jurisdiction. Thus, for instance, if the dispute involves a maritime contract, that fact will give the federal court subject matter jurisdiction to decide the petition. On the other hand, where a party seeks to challenge or confirm an arbitration award under § 9 or 10 of the FAA, the court may not consider the subject matter of the underlying dispute but may only analyze whether subject matter jurisdiction exists over the enforcement action—i.e., of a contractually agreed arbitral award. As a result, absent diversity jurisdiction, federal courts will rarely have subject matter jurisdiction to enforce arbitral awards under the FAA, even where the underlying dispute arose under a maritime contract. That said, where the dispute concerns an award governed by the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (aka the New York Convention), federal subject matter jurisdiction will still exist on the basis that the Convention is a “treaty obligation” of the United States.

Morgan v. Sundance, Inc., 142 S. Ct. 1708 (2022): The Court held that a district court need not find “prejudice” as a condition to finding that a party has waived its right to stay litigation or compel arbitration under the Federal Arbitration Act; waiver of an arbitration clause should be construed just as any other contract provision.This is in keeping with the general principle that while arbitration is to be favored, contract terms relating to arbitration should not be given special treatment or be construed differently from other contractual terms.

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Maritime Transportation: Whose Responsibility Is It When Produce Arrives in Damaged Condition?

Keith B. Letourneau

What do avocados, bananas and citrus fruit all have in common in Texas? A large percentage reach our shores by ship. But you know how bananas and avocados ripen on the kitchen counter. How are they kept fresh from grove to store, and whose responsibility is it when the produce arrives in damaged condition, or the buyer fails to pay for these commodities?

Container ships with dedicated refrigerated containers (reefer ships) regularly transport perishable fruit from Central and South America to U.S. ports on the Gulf, East and West Coasts. The U.S. Carriage of Goods by Sea Act (“COGSA”) governs the transportation of cargo by ocean common carriage between the United States and foreign ports. Common carriage means that the ocean carrier makes its cargo space available to the public, as opposed to private carriage, which dedicates its cargo space to one or a select few shippers.

COGSA creates a burden-shifting scheme to assess liability when cargo arrives in damaged condition. The shipper (that is, the party whose cargo is transported) can present a prima facie case of liability by proving that it delivered the cargo in sound condition at the load port, the cargo arrived in damaged condition at the discharge port and the shipper suffered monetary damage as a result. The burden then shifts to the carrier to prove that it exercised due diligence and one of COGSA’s 17 exceptions to liability apply, for example: perils, dangers and accidents of the sea; inherent vice of the cargo; latent defects of the cargo not discoverable by due diligence; or an act, neglect of the master, mariner or servants of the carrier in the navigation or management of the vessel. If the carrier satisfies that hurdle, the shipper must then prove that the carrier’s negligence caused the damage. Note that carriers generally disclaim any liability for damage to cargo carried above deck (because of exposure to the elements) and so shippers should be aware as to whether the bill of lading includes any such disclaimer and where their cargoes will be stowed aboard the vessel.

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Can Foreign Corporate Defendants Be “Found” by Registering and Appointing an Agent Post Mallory?

Lauren B. Wilgus and Noe S. Hamra

Post Mallory v. Norfolk Southern Railway Co., are foreign corporate defendants “found within the district” for purposes of Rule B by registering to do business in New York and appointing an agent for service of process?

Introduction

For years, federal courts in the Second Circuit consistently held that registration with the New York Department of State to conduct business in New York, and designation of an agent within the district upon whom process may be served, constituted being “found within the district” for purposes of Rule B of the Supplemental Rules for Admiralty or Maritime Claims and Asset Forfeiture Actions of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (the “Admiralty Rules”). This precedent was clearly established in STX Panocean (UK) Co. v. Glory Wealth Shipping Pte Ltd., 560 F.3d 127, 133 (2d Cir. 2009), where the Second Circuit unequivocally held that “a company registered with the Department of State is ‘found’ [within the district] for purposes of Rule B….”

However, subsequent developments in the law of personal jurisdiction combined with the absence of clear legislative statements in the New York registration statutes[1] have cast doubt on the continuing viability of STX Panocean’s holding, and the extent to which a court can exercise general jurisdiction over foreign corporate defendants, especially under New York law.

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Blank Rome Named “Law Firm of the Year” in Admiralty & Maritime Law in U.S. News – Best Lawyers® 2023 “Best Law Firms”

Our firm was named “Law Firm of the Year” in Admiralty & Maritime Law in the 2023 “Best Law Firms” survey by U.S. News & World Report – Best Lawyers®. Only one law firm per legal practice area received the “Best Law Firm” recognition.

Our Maritime practice group was also ranked Tier 1 nationally and ranked Tier 1 regionally in Houston, New York City, and Washington, D.C., in Admiralty & Maritime Law.

To view Blank Rome’s full rankings, please click here.

Agreements to Arbitrate Seaman’s Personal Injury Suits Are Valid and Enforceable

William R. Bennett III

Advanced Wage Agreements offer to pay “advanced wages” to an injured seaman, in addition to the legal obligations to pay maintenance and cure, in exchange for the seaman agreeing to arbitrate his personal injury claim if and when he decides to seek redress for his injury.

Advanced Wage Agreements define advanced wages as “compensation for wages that a seaman has lost as a consequence of his/her injury.” The advanced wages are not a substitute for the federal law requirement to pay all reasonable medical expenses (i.e., cure), or certain other expenses (i.e., maintenance), while the seaman recovers from his injury.

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What If the Ever Given Grounding Had Occurred Here?

Jeffrey S. Moller

The timing of the Ever Given’s grounding in the Suez Canal could not have been better, at least as far as my admiralty law students at Drexel University and I were concerned. The incident occurred right after we covered the subject areas of casualties, cargo losses, and the potential liability of pilots. And just in time for me to add this extra-credit question to the final exam: “If the maritime law of the United States were applicable to the Ever Given incident, who would be liable for what, why, or why not?”

Background

As readers will no doubt remember, Ever Given became hard aground by both its bow and stern across a single-lane portion of the Suez Canal in March. The pilots, who were employees of the Suez Canal Authority (“SCA”) lost control of the ship in a severe wind/sand storm, partly because of the enormous sail area created by the multi-tier deckload of containers. 

While costly salvors worked to free the ship, one of the most important shipping shortcuts in the world was completely impassable. Hundreds of ships at each end had to either wait or take the long route around the Cape of Good Hope. These ships were loaded with livestock, agricultural products subject to spoiling, and parts inventories for the world’s “just in time” manufacturing economy. The SCA claims to have lost millions in passage fees. The ship was at least slightly damaged both bow and stern; owners of its cargo suffered delays and/or damage. 

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The Gateway to Federal Court: Admiralty Jurisdiction and Limitation of Liability

Noe S. Hamra and Zachary R. Cain

In the United States, state and federal courts operate on a dual track, with the difference that state courts are courts of “general jurisdiction” (hearing all cases not specifically reserved to federal courts), while federal courts are courts of “limited subject matter jurisdiction” (hearing cases involving “diversity of citizenship,” raising a “federal question,” or “sounding in admiralty”).

Admiralty and Maritime Subject Matter Jurisdiction

As it relates to admiralty and maritime subject matter jurisdiction, the U.S. Constitution states in Article III, Section 2 that “[t]he judicial Power shall extend. . . to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction…” The first statute defining the boundaries of admiralty jurisdiction was enacted in 1789 (known as the First Judiciary Act. (Chapter 20, section 9, 1 Stat. 73)). The current statutory grant of admiralty jurisdiction, however, can be found at 28 U.S.C. § 1333(1), which gives federal district courts original jurisdiction over “any civil case of admiralty or maritime jurisdiction, saving to suitors in all cases all other remedies to which they are otherwise entitled.” Some kinds of maritime cases—typically those involving in rem remedies against a vessel or cargo—are subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of the federal courts. Under the “savings to suitors” clause, on the other hand, state courts have concurrent jurisdiction over admiralty claims when a state court is competent to grant relief, which is in most instances where in personam jurisdiction may be had in a state court.

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Marine Casualty Investigations: Legal Standards

Zachary J. Wyatte

Without a doubt, shipping industry stakeholders should always strive to have zero days lost due to accidents. But, equally, the industry should also always be prepared to immediately respond to and investigate unfortunate events when they occur. In this regard, it is critical to understand the investigative process that sets in motion after a significant marine casualty occurs.

Our experience investigating and providing legal representation for clients following a marine casualty has shown that, despite decades of implementing international safety protocols, advancements in ship design, and an industry-wide focus and dedication to improved safety, marine casualties will continue to occur; maybe not as often, but they will happen. Simply put, following all the safety protocols put in place may not be enough to avoid a casualty. Indeed, vessels of all sizes, large and small, transiting the world’s oceans, subject themselves to influences beyond their control that create the inherent risk of a casualty occurring.

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Carriage of Goods by Sea Act Fundamentals

Vanessa C. DiDomenico

The Carriage of Goods by Sea Act (“COGSA”) defines the basic relationship—duties, liabilities, rights, and immunities—between ocean carrier and cargo owner. COGSA was passed in the United States in 1936 and its enactment was the result of various concerns by Congress. In the early nineteenth century, carriers were strictly liable for cargo damage, with only few limited exceptions to liability for an act of God, public enemies, and inherent vices. By the second half of the nineteenth century, carriers began issuing bills of lading containing exculpatory clauses that sought to reduce or eliminate a carrier’s liability altogether. Therefore, a compromise occurred in 1893 when Congress enacted the Harter Act, which sought to achieve uniformity in the rules of liability applied in international shipping and to strike a balance between carriers’ efforts to reduce liability and cargo owners’ efforts to impose liability regardless of fault. The Harter Act allowed carriers who furnished a seaworthy vessel and exercised due care with the cargo to be exempt from most liability. Currently, the Harter Act has not been repealed and does govern certain transactions where COGSA does not. Below is a detailed exploration of the key differences between the Harter Act and COGSA.

Differences Between the COGSA and the Harter Act

COGSA applies by force of law to contracts for the carriage of goods by sea, to or from foreign ports and U.S. ports. The Harter Act applies to the carriage of goods to or from U.S. ports. COGSA preempts the Harter Act with respect to contracts of carriage pertaining to foreign trade. COGSA does allow for parties to incorporate its provisions for the contract of carriage for voyages between U.S. ports. In fact, it is not uncommon for parties to do so. The question may be asked why a carrier would agree or even want to expand coverage: one reason could be that COGSA provides carriers with a wide array of defenses, and where liability does exist it can be limited.

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Risks Attendant to U.S. Rule B Alter-Ego Vessel Seizures

Keith B. Letourneau

A recent wave of vessel seizures premised on alter-ego theories has swept through various U.S. federal courts. These cases present significant risks for vessel owners and ship managers, even if the underlying claims are ultimately defensible. Plaintiffs employ Supplemental Admiralty Rule B as the procedural device to seize vessels as an asset of the target defendant. Rule B requires a prima facie showing that the defendant is not present within the district to satisfy the existence of general-personal jurisdiction. The Supreme Court’s general jurisdiction ruling in Daimler AG v. Bauman, 134 S.Ct. 746 (2014), has made it much easier to meet Rule B’s requirement because such jurisdiction is now predicated upon proof that the defendant’s systematic and continuous contacts render it essentially at home within the district, effectively requiring its principal place of business to lie within the district. Given the peripatetic existence of merchant ships and their ownership—often by single ship-owning companies incorporated within flag-of-convenience countries—satisfying Rule B’s “presence within the district” standard now is nearly automatic.

Plaintiff Strategies

Plaintiffs couple Rule B’s easy compliance with alter-ego allegations that the ship manager or ship-owning group are dominated and controlled by a single individual or entity to the disadvantage of the plaintiffs and that the target defendant is but a corporate extension of the company with whom the plaintiffs’ real dispute exists (and that dispute may have absolutely no connection with the United States). Supplemental Admiralty Rule E(4)(f) permits a defendant whose property has been seized to an immediate post-seizure hearing. While the federal courts are not aligned as to the standard that applies at such a hearing, it is fair to say that plaintiffs are required, at minimum, to meet the probable-cause test, which equates to reasonable grounds for supposing the allegations are well founded.

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